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Kaiy (medieval cautery) is an ancient method of heat therapy in traditional Persian medicine (TPM). Some of its important applications have been neglected during the medical revolution. Meanwhile, different treatment modalities that incorporate heat, including moxibustion, have progressed in traditional Chinese medicine. In this study, we reviewed the main TPM textbooks that were written specifically in the field of kaiy. We considered the traditional teachings in the context of contemporary information, gathered from the scientific literature about moxibustion and modern cauterization. Some surgical therapeutic indications of kaiy (e.g., debridement and coagulative procedures) have been advanced by the innovation of electro-cauterization. However, those therapeutic applications that were based on the TPM humoral theory for relieving body coldness or myofascial pains-which are similar to moxibustion usages-have not received the same attention. Apart from the broad similarities of kaiy and moxibustion as thermal therapies with similar indications, there is a striking correspondence between kaiy point mapping and acupoints. Therefore, further research on different kaiy aspects is recommended. Please cite this article as: Jaladat AM, Alizadeh Vaghasloo M, Atarzadeh F, Ayati MH, Kazemi AH, Akin E, Hashempur MH. Similarities and differences between kaiy in Persian medicine and moxibustion in Chinese medicine. J Integr Med. 2023; 21(4):354-360.
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Moxibustão/história , Terapia por Acupuntura , Medicina Tradicional Chinesa , Pontos de Acupuntura , Medicina TradicionalRESUMO
BACKGROUND@#Constipation is a common chronic bowel disorder with an incidence of more than 50% in the elderly population. Complementary and alternative medicine is a cost-effective and satisfactory treatment for constipation used widely by the elderly.@*OBJECTIVE@#This study evaluates the efficacy of an herbal formula made from Foeniculum vulgare Mill. and Rosa damascena for the treatment of constipation in an elderly population and consequent changes to their quality of life.@*DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTION@#This double-blind randomized active controlled clinical trial, with parallel group allocation ratio of 1:1, was conducted in a referral clinic in Afzalipour Hospital, affiliated to Kerman University of Medical Sciences in Kerman, Southeastern Iran. Individuals over 60 years of age, diagnosed with functional constipation (based on the Rome IV criteria), were included in this study. Participants received a sachet of 10 g F. vulgare and R. damascena (herbal formula group) or polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG 4000 group) with a glass of warm water two times a day for 4 weeks and were followed up for 4 additional weeks.@*MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES@#Constipation severity, stool consistency, and the quality of life were used as the primary outcomes. Drug side effects were used as a secondary outcome. The outcomes were assessed using the Constipation Assessment Scale, the Bristol Stool Form Scale, and the Patient Assessment of Constipation Quality of Life questionnaire.@*RESULTS@#A total of 25 participants in each group completed the four-week treatment cycle and the eight-week follow-up. At the end of the four-week treatment cycle, all clinical outcomes had significant improvements in both groups (P < 0.05). The analysis of constipation severity (P < 0.001), stool consistency (P < 0.001), and the quality of life (P < 0.001) showed significant improvements with fewer side effects (mild diarrhea) and a longer duration of symptom relief in the herbal formula group compared to the PEG 4000 group.@*CONCLUSION@#Although both interventions significantly improved the treatment outcomes, constipation severity, stool consistency and the quality of life were improved more effectively by the herbal formula than by PEG 4000; however, the mechanism of action is not yet understood.@*TRIAL REGISTRATION@#This trial was registered in the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials (IRCTID: IRCT20200108046056N1).
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Idoso , Humanos , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Constipação Intestinal/tratamento farmacológico , Método Duplo-Cego , Foeniculum , Irã (Geográfico) , Qualidade de Vida , Rosa , Resultado do TratamentoRESUMO
BACKGROUND@#Oral mucositis (OM) is one of the most common complications of mucotoxic cancer therapy. Mucositis induces clinically significant pain, increases the risk of infections and affects the patients' quality of life.@*OBJECTIVE@#This study investigated the effects of an herbal preparation from Plantago ovata hydrocolloid in the prevention and treatment of OM, in breast cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy with a regimen including adriamycin.@*DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, AND INTERVENTIONS@#This research was a double-blind, randomized, controlled crossover trial. The herbal compound consisted of a mixture of 500 mg of P. ovate husk in 30 mL water plus three drops of vinegar per dose, which was used as a mouthwash. Phytochemical and physicochemical tests of the compound were also performed. Twenty-eight patients who developed mucositis during the chemotherapy screening cycle were randomized to the herbal compound (n = 14) and placebo (n = 14) groups. They received herbal compound or placebo three times per day during their next chemotherapy cycle (cycle 1 of treatment). Patients were crossed over during cycle 2 of treatment and received the alternative therapy. An oral care protocol was prescribed to all patients in cycles 1 and 2 of the treatment.@*MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES@#The patients were visited at baseline, the end of the first and second weeks of the screening cycle, and the end of the first and second weeks of each of two treatment cycles. The degree of mucositis was used as the main treatment outcome. Other indexes, such as the severity of pain, xerostomia grade and the quality of life were also measured.@*RESULTS@#Compared with the placebo, the herbal compound significantly reduced the degree of mucositis, the severity of pain and the xerostomia grade; it also improved the patients' quality of life (P < 0.05). Comparison between the screening cycle and placebo treatment group showed that the oral care protocol had a significant effect in the reduction of OM (P < 0.05).@*CONCLUSION@#The oral care protocol and the herbal compound based on P. ovata are effective ways for preventing and treating OM in patients undergoing mucotoxic cancer therapy.@*TRIAL REGISTRATION@#Iranian registry of clinical trials IRCT20180923041093N1.
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BACKGROUND@#Obesity is a major public health problem and its occurrence is markedly increasing in developed and developing countries. However, few studies have investigated the use of natural products to treat obesity. The effects of taking a combination of oxymel and Zataria multiflora Boiss. (ZM), herein referred to as Zataria oxymel (ZO), on obesity, lipid profile and insulin resistance have not yet been studied.@*OBJECTIVE@#This study evaluates the effects of oxymel and ZO on obesity, lipid profile and insulin resistance.@*DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS@#In this randomized, controlled, triple-blind trial, overweight patients were randomly divided into three groups and received doses of study compounds twice per day for twelve weeks. Group A received 0.75 g ZM in 10 mL oxymel in each treatment; group B received 1.5 g ZM in 10 mL of oxymel in each treatment and group C (control) only received 10 mL of oxymel in each treatment.@*MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES@#Anthropometric parameters, including body mass index (BMI), waist circumference and hip circumference, were measured at the time of registration. Blood tests were carried out at the beginning and once again at end of the study. Blood parameters included fasting blood sugar (FBS), insulin levels, serum lipid profile (total cholesterol, triglyceride, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol) and liver enzymes (aspartate transaminase and alanine transaminase). Serum creatinine was also measured at the beginning of the project and in monthly intervals for three months. The homeostasis model assessment index was calculated as fasting insulin (μIU/mL) × FBS (mg/dL)/405.@*RESULTS@#The results showed that patients receiving ZO experienced significant reduction in waist circumference in groups A, B and C, respectively (P < 0.001) but no significant change in BMI. Group A also experienced reduction in hip circumference (P = 0.01). Groups B and C had reduction in the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (P = 0.05 and P = 0.01, respectively), with no significant reduction in FBS. No effect on lipid profile, liver enzymes or serum creatinine was observed in the three groups.@*CONCLUSION@#In this study, treatment with ZO and oxymel reduced insulin resistance, and waist and hip circumferences in overweight patients. Nonetheless, the traditional Persian use of ZO as a beverage to improve the anthropometric indices in overweight individuals still requires further research with a larger sample size.@*TRIAL REGISTRATION@#Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials Code IRCT20171220037976N1.
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BACKGROUND@#Major depressive disorder (MDD) accompanied by anxious distress is a chronic and disabling disorder. Its conventional drug therapies often have low patient compliance due to drug-related side effects. In Persian medicine, lavender-dodder syrup is one formula often recommended for such disorders.@*OBJECTIVE@#This study compares the effects of lavender-dodder syrup to the standard drug, citalopram, for treating MDD with anxious distress.@*DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTION@#This six-week, double-blind, randomized, clinical trial was carried out in a psychiatric outpatient clinic. During the six-week intervention period, patients in citalopram group received citalopram tablets 20 mg/d plus 5 mL placebo syrup every 12 h; patients in group B received placebo tablets once daily plus 5 mL of lavender-dodder herbal syrup every 12 h.@*MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES@#Primary outcome measures, depression and anxiety, were evaluated using the Hamilton Depression/Anxiety Rating Scales, and were scored at the beginning of the study and at weeks three and six. Secondary outcome measures including response to treatment and remission rates were also compared between the two groups.@*RESULTS@#Fifty-six participants with MDD and anxious distress were randomly assigned to two groups. Mean depression scores significantly decreased in citalopram and herbal groups at weeks three and six (time effect: P < 0.001), although the observed changes were not significantly different between the groups (intervention effect: P = 0.61). Mean anxiety scores were not significantly different between the two groups at week three (P = 0.75). However, at the end of week six, the observed decrease was significantly higher in the herbal syrup group than the citalopram group (intervention effect: P = 0.007).@*CONCLUSION@#The herbal syrup is an effective and tolerable supplement for treating MDD with anxious distress.@*TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER@#IRCT2016102430459N1 on Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials.
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OBJECTIVE@#To evaluate the efficacy and safety of administration of the formulated Persian herbal syrup on improving the symptoms of patients with constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome (IBS-C).@*METHODS@#This study was conducted in 70 patients with IBS-C, who were recruited from 3 medical centers in Mashhad, Iran, from November 2017 to August 2018. Seventy patients were randomly assigned to 2 groups including treatment and placebo groups by block randomization, 35 cases in each group. Patients in the treatment group received 15 mL of anti-IBS syrup, thrice daily for 6 weeks and followed up for 4 weeks. Placebo syrup was also prepared through similar instruction, BP syrup without plant extract was used. Primary outcome induding IBS Symptom Severity Scale (IBS-SSS) questionnaire and secondary outcomes in terms of Hospital Anxiety and Depression (HADS) questionnaires, the Bristol Stool Form Scale (BSFS) were completed and evaluated at weeks 6 and 10, respectively. Safety indices were collected at the end of the treatment and Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events v4.0 (CTCAE) was used to evaluate the adverse events.@*RESULTS@#The response to treatment was 84.4% (27/32) in the treatment group and 46.4% (13/28) in the placebo group, respectively (P= 0.002). Compared with pre-treatment, a significant decrease was found on the IBS-SSS and BSFS scores after 6-week intervention in both groups (P0.05). Side effects reported in the treatment group included 2 cases of headache during the first week of the onset of the treatment, 1 case of drowsiness, 1 case of increase in menstrual bleeding, which did not result in discontinuation of the treatment. In the placebo group, 1 case of exacerbation of the disease was reported.@*CONCLUSIONS@#Anti-IBS syrup significantly reduced the severity of IBS symptoms compared to placebo. However, there was a need for further investigation regarding the anxiety and depression scores. (Registration No. IRCT2017061034446N1).
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OBJECTIVE@#To evaluate the efficacy and safety of administration of the formulated Persian herbal syrup on improving the symptoms of patients with constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome (IBS-C).@*METHODS@#This study was conducted in 70 patients with IBS-C, who were recruited from 3 medical centers in Mashhad, Iran, from November 2017 to August 2018. Seventy patients were randomly assigned to 2 groups including treatment and placebo groups by block randomization, 35 cases in each group. Patients in the treatment group received 15 mL of anti-IBS syrup, thrice daily for 6 weeks and followed up for 4 weeks. Placebo syrup was also prepared through similar instruction, BP syrup without plant extract was used. Primary outcome induding IBS Symptom Severity Scale (IBS-SSS) questionnaire and secondary outcomes in terms of Hospital Anxiety and Depression (HADS) questionnaires, the Bristol Stool Form Scale (BSFS) were completed and evaluated at weeks 6 and 10, respectively. Safety indices were collected at the end of the treatment and Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events v4.0 (CTCAE) was used to evaluate the adverse events.@*RESULTS@#The response to treatment was 84.4% (27/32) in the treatment group and 46.4% (13/28) in the placebo group, respectively (P= 0.002). Compared with pre-treatment, a significant decrease was found on the IBS-SSS and BSFS scores after 6-week intervention in both groups (P0.05). Side effects reported in the treatment group included 2 cases of headache during the first week of the onset of the treatment, 1 case of drowsiness, 1 case of increase in menstrual bleeding, which did not result in discontinuation of the treatment. In the placebo group, 1 case of exacerbation of the disease was reported.@*CONCLUSIONS@#Anti-IBS syrup significantly reduced the severity of IBS symptoms compared to placebo. However, there was a need for further investigation regarding the anxiety and depression scores. (Registration No. IRCT2017061034446N1).
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BACKGROUND@#Obesity is a major public health problem and its occurrence is markedly increasing in developed and developing countries. However, few studies have investigated the use of natural products to treat obesity. The effects of taking a combination of oxymel and Zataria multiflora Boiss. (ZM), herein referred to as Zataria oxymel (ZO), on obesity, lipid profile and insulin resistance have not yet been studied.@*OBJECTIVE@#This study evaluates the effects of oxymel and ZO on obesity, lipid profile and insulin resistance.@*DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS@#In this randomized, controlled, triple-blind trial, overweight patients were randomly divided into three groups and received doses of study compounds twice per day for twelve weeks. Group A received 0.75 g ZM in 10 mL oxymel in each treatment; group B received 1.5 g ZM in 10 mL of oxymel in each treatment and group C (control) only received 10 mL of oxymel in each treatment.@*MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES@#Anthropometric parameters, including body mass index (BMI), waist circumference and hip circumference, were measured at the time of registration. Blood tests were carried out at the beginning and once again at end of the study. Blood parameters included fasting blood sugar (FBS), insulin levels, serum lipid profile (total cholesterol, triglyceride, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol) and liver enzymes (aspartate transaminase and alanine transaminase). Serum creatinine was also measured at the beginning of the project and in monthly intervals for three months. The homeostasis model assessment index was calculated as fasting insulin (μIU/mL) × FBS (mg/dL)/405.@*RESULTS@#The results showed that patients receiving ZO experienced significant reduction in waist circumference in groups A, B and C, respectively (P < 0.001) but no significant change in BMI. Group A also experienced reduction in hip circumference (P = 0.01). Groups B and C had reduction in the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (P = 0.05 and P = 0.01, respectively), with no significant reduction in FBS. No effect on lipid profile, liver enzymes or serum creatinine was observed in the three groups.@*CONCLUSION@#In this study, treatment with ZO and oxymel reduced insulin resistance, and waist and hip circumferences in overweight patients. Nonetheless, the traditional Persian use of ZO as a beverage to improve the anthropometric indices in overweight individuals still requires further research with a larger sample size.@*TRIAL REGISTRATION@#Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials Code IRCT20171220037976N1.
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BACKGROUND@#Major depressive disorder (MDD) accompanied by anxious distress is a chronic and disabling disorder. Its conventional drug therapies often have low patient compliance due to drug-related side effects. In Persian medicine, lavender-dodder syrup is one formula often recommended for such disorders.@*OBJECTIVE@#This study compares the effects of lavender-dodder syrup to the standard drug, citalopram, for treating MDD with anxious distress.@*DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTION@#This six-week, double-blind, randomized, clinical trial was carried out in a psychiatric outpatient clinic. During the six-week intervention period, patients in citalopram group received citalopram tablets 20 mg/d plus 5 mL placebo syrup every 12 h; patients in group B received placebo tablets once daily plus 5 mL of lavender-dodder herbal syrup every 12 h.@*MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES@#Primary outcome measures, depression and anxiety, were evaluated using the Hamilton Depression/Anxiety Rating Scales, and were scored at the beginning of the study and at weeks three and six. Secondary outcome measures including response to treatment and remission rates were also compared between the two groups.@*RESULTS@#Fifty-six participants with MDD and anxious distress were randomly assigned to two groups. Mean depression scores significantly decreased in citalopram and herbal groups at weeks three and six (time effect: P < 0.001), although the observed changes were not significantly different between the groups (intervention effect: P = 0.61). Mean anxiety scores were not significantly different between the two groups at week three (P = 0.75). However, at the end of week six, the observed decrease was significantly higher in the herbal syrup group than the citalopram group (intervention effect: P = 0.007).@*CONCLUSION@#The herbal syrup is an effective and tolerable supplement for treating MDD with anxious distress.@*TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER@#IRCT2016102430459N1 on Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials.
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OBJECTIVE@#This study investigated the biochemical, histopathological and physiological effects of Citrullus colocynthis on peripheral neuropathy in rats with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes.@*METHODS@#Seventy adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were included in the present study. Diabetes was induced in 60 rats, with a single intraperitoneal injection of STZ (65 mg/kg). After 4 weeks, the diabetic rats were assessed for neuropathy. Then, the diabetic rats with neuropathy were randomly divided into 6 groups for a 4-week treatment with gabapentin, oral administration of C. colocynthis fruit pulp powder (100 and 300 mg/kg per day), topical preparations as oil-based solution and ointment, or placebo. Changes in metabolic, physiological, biochemical and histological parameters were considered as treatment outcomes.@*RESULTS@#Metabolic outcomes (body weight and blood glucose level) were improved in the C. colocynthis-treated groups as compared to placebo. Tail-flick and hot-plate tests also had lower latency in the C. colocynthis-treated groups. Measurement of oxidative stress markers (malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase and catalase) showed the antioxidant effect of C. colocynthis. Histological evaluation of the sciatic nerve showed that C. colocynthis decreased the number of demyelinated and degenerated nerve fibers. Among the C. colocynthis-treated groups, the one receiving 100 mg/kg power per day orally had the best treatment outcomes.@*CONCLUSION@#The present study showed that C. colocynthis fruit, through its antioxidant and hypoglycemic activities, has a positive effect in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy.
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Introduction: Pediculosis Capitis (head lice infestation) is the most common disease of the bloodsucking insect which affects approximately six to twenty million cases and results considerable economic burden annually. In this study we aim to investigate some medieval Persian views on the role of non-pharmacological treatment strategies for prevention and control of pediculosis and compare their prescriptions with current findings. Materials and methods: In this qualitative study, we reviewed some well-known Persian medicine (PM) textbooks based on the selected keywords (Shepesh, Reshk, Ghamal and Seyban) to collect the viewpoint of PM scholars for pediculosis and its treatments. Also, we searched in the databases such as PubMed, Science direct and Scopus about the topic. Results: Persian medicine scientists believed that there are six essential health principles (SetteZaroorieh), which can affect human health and prevent diseases including air, nutrition, exercise, sleep and wakefulness, exertion of unnecessary materials from the body and finally psychological concepts. Proper management of these essential factors can improve lifestyle of people affected with pediculosis and also play a key role in prevention of head lice infestation. Conclusion: There are several suitable recommendations for prevention and control of pediculosis according to essential health principles in PM which can consider beside current drug treatments and the individual health recommendations for complete control of the disease
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Humanos , História Medieval , Infestações por Piolhos/terapia , Pediculus/efeitos dos fármacos , Terapias Complementares , Estudos de Avaliação como Assunto/história , Medicina TradicionalRESUMO
Periconceptional care such as lifestyle plays an important impact role in offspring health. The aim of the present study was to clarify the perspective of Avicenna on periconceptional care. Avicenna (980-1037 A.D.) was one of the outstanding Persian physicians, who made great contributions to the field of medical sciences, in particular, obstetrics. In advance, Avicenna's book, Canon of Medicine, was considered to find his perspectives on periconceptional care. Then, his ideas and theories were compared to the current findings by searching the keywords in main indexing systems including PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus and Institute for Scientific Information Web of Science as well as the search engine of Google Scholar. Current investigations show that gamete quality, pregnancy outcome, and offspring health at birth and long term depend on both parents' lifestyle in pre- and periconceptional period, as well as the intrauterine environment. Avicenna believed that seminal fluid, sperm, ovum, and developing conditions in utero were influenced by the stages of food digestion and the function of some organs. On the other hand, food digestion and function of the organs also depend on each parent's lifestyle and environmental factors. He mentioned 6 principles of healthy lifestyle: exercise, nutrition, sleep and awareness, excretion of body wastes and retention of necessary materials, psychic features, as well as air and climate. Thus, a multicomponent healthy lifestyle should be considered by parents of child-bearing age in an appropriate period before and in early pregnancy as well as elimination of any disorders in parents, to give birth to more healthy offspring.
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BACKGROUND@#Bloating is a common gastrointestinal complaint which is difficult to treat.@*OBJECTIVE@#This study investigated the efficacy and compliance of a formulation called KAASER comprised of Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague seed, Zingiber officinale Roscoe. rhizome and Piper nigrum L. berry in the treatment of functional bloating.@*DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTION@#A total of 106 patients with functional bloating, between 20 and 50 years of age, participated in this double-blind randomized controlled trial. Patients were divided into 3 parallel groups that received 500 mg of placebo, dimethicone or KAASER, three times a day for 2 weeks.@*MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES@#The frequency and severity of bloating were primary outcomes, while the frequencies of eructation, defecation, borborygmus and early satiation were secondary outcomes. All parameters were evaluated at the beginning (week 0), and also weeks 2, 4 and 10 of the study, through self-report checklists with a scoring system.@*RESULTS@#Among the 84 patients who completed the study, the frequency and severity of bloating (P < 0.001), the frequencies of eructation, defecation and borborygmus (P = 0.03) were significantly improved in the group receiving KAASER (36 patients) compared with the dimethicone (35 patients) and placebo (35 patients) groups, during the 3 phases of follow-up. These significant differences persisted through the 2 and 8 weeks of follow-ups after cessation of medication (week 4 and 10). In early satiation, no significant differences were observed among the 3 groups.@*CONCLUSION@#The results showed that KAASER can be effectively used to treat patients suffering from bloating. Bloating, eructation, defecation and borborygmus in the KAASER group remained significantly improved after 2 and 8 weeks of cessation of medication, making this mechanism an interesting area for further investigation.@*TRIAL REGISTRATION@#Registration trial IRCT2015100324327N on Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials.
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Traditional Persian medicine (TPM) proposes a different viewpoint to the chronic diseases. Diagnosis and implemented treatment are based on individual differences among patients. Constipation or Ea'teghal-e-batn is a condition in which the patient develops difficult or painful defecation. Based on TPM concepts, the fifirst digestion step starts from halq (oral cavity), and ends via defecation from the maq'ad (anus). Avicenna believed that four faculties, ha'zemeh (digestive), ja'zebeh (absorptive), ma'sekeh (retentive) and da'fe'eh (propulsive), are involved in the process of digestion and absorption of the ingested food and expelling the waste materials. The bowel movement and appearance of the stool is a measure for evaluating the gastrointestinal healthy function. Defecation should be with no pain and fecal material should have no burning and acuity. Low food intake or foods with dry temperament, dryness of gastrointestinal tract, diaphoresis and heavy exercise as well as intestine sensory loss were discussed as main causes of constipation. Management of constipation in TPM includes dietary schemes, oil massages and subsequently simple herbal medicines. According to TPM theories, the fifirst step in treating a disease is the elimination of disease causes (asbabe- maraz) and also providing the causes of health (asbab-e-sehhat). Health care providers should know the proper condition which the herbal medicines should be administered in and be able to guide the patients about the benefifits and hazards of herbal remedies, commonly used in their living origin.
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According to historical evidence, the abuse of opium has been reported all over the globe-specifically throughout Eastern nations-since the sixteenth century. Before that, opium had mostly been applied as medication. Reference has been made in traditional Persian medical literature to the method of cultivation, properties, side effects and toxicity. In sixteenth century Iran, during the reign of the Safavids, opium abuse began. It was from then that prominent Persian scholars started to think of solutions to this societal problem. One of the most famous scholars was Imad al-Din Mahmud ibn Mas'ud Shirazi, who composed a book concerning addiction-Afyunieh, a comprehensive book on the topic of opium and all issues of opium. Furthermore, he recommended methods for reducing opium dose as well as substitution with other medications that had a narrower range of side effects, in order to eradicate dependency upon opium and opium-derived materials. This is most likely the first book that comprehensively addressed opium and discussed drug rehabilitation methodology, in traditional Persian medical literature. In this historical review, the authors have introduced the book Afyunieh, which presents methods for treating addiction to and giving up opium; the text comprises a synthesis of the author's opinions, professional experience and references to the work of other famous physicians.
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The gastrointestinal tract is one of the most important organs of the human body and is vulnerable to different diseases. Available drugs often have low efficacy or are associated with many adverse effects. Therefore, alternative drugs are necessary to treat gastrointestinal complications. This study intended to identify medicinal plants in Urmia, Iran, that can affect common gastrointestinal disorders and diseases. Data was collected from public resources via interviews and questionnaires applied from April to June 2013. Herbarium specimens were collected from the region and authenticated by a botanist. A total of 41 indigenous medicinal plants from the Urmia region, belonging to twenty families, have a traditional medicinal role in the treatment of parasitic and infectious diseases, diarrhea, reflux, gastroenteritis, peptic ulcer, constipation, bloating, among other gastrointestinal tract disorders. Analysis showed that most plants affecting the gastrointestinal tract belonged in the Asteraceae family (24%). The most used part of the plants was the seed at 17%. Decoction at 65% was the most popular form of treatment used. Some of the medicinal plants discussed in this article have new implications presented for the first time. Pharmacological studies on the therapeutic effects of the indigenous plants mentioned in this study are necessary in order to investigate their claimed clinical effects and the use of their effective compounds to produce natural and useful drugs. Currently, there is no data on the herbal plants used to treat gastrointestinal disorders in northwestern Iran. Therefore, these findings are important for the management of gastrointestinal disorders and to conduct future studies on traditional medicine for drug development.